Beginner's Mixing & Mastering
Introductory Audio Engineering
I made this so a beginner can get started making quality audio whilst also guiding them into mixing and mastering, without being fooled by ads into buying stuff they don’t even need. This way, you’ll not repeat the mistakes I did and so many others have also!
Although mostly about music, this also applies to voice acting, vocal narrations, and sound in general. I’m not a professional, but I can share what I experienced and researched.
Also, if you see any underlined text, these are links to free material.
Quick Mastering
If you already know about DAWs, plugins and VSTs, or don’t have the time to read everything here, below is a basic but decent Mixing Chain setup which you apply to each and every single track or instrument in your DAW. The mixing chain refers to the order of plugins during mastering, optimally used in a certain combo, otherwise you often get an awkward sound.
1 Sliders / Adjusters push sound towards the speaker or farther back, adjusting volume. If an instrument or track is too loud or too quiet, adjust these first.
2 Panning moves instruments towards either side. Switch to mono to listen better, allowing you to more easily find an unused spot. By panning your instruments to your tastes, you use more of the soundfield. Useful for multiple voices or SFX off to the sides.
Phantom Imaging is when you move audio beyond the sliders via reversed polarity—often overlooked and underused despite maximising panorama for your electric instruments. Free phase inverter here!
3 Clipper
4 De-esser
5 Limiter
6 Compression
7 Transient Shaper
8 Modulation (e.g. Phase Shift, Flanging, Phaser, Chorus, Tremolo, Vibrato, etc.)
9 Filter
10 Gating
11 Reverb
12 Delay / Spatials
13 Saturation
14 Equaliser
15 Audio Normalising / Leveler
Optional: a 2nd Equaliser for further audio alterations. May also be placed at #8 to serve as 1st EQ, #14 then becoming 2nd EQ, though usually not done by beginners.
If you still don’t have time to follow these steps, then simply use two to three different Equalisers for each track, adjusting each to your tastes. Results won’t be optimal, but they will be decent.
If you are a beginner and would like to learn the basics from the very start, read on!
Beginner’s Guide to Music-making, Mixing & Mastering
#1
Get a Free DAW: Digital Audio Workstation
Most DAWs already have their own tutorials and instructional videos, so I won’t actually explain them here; e.g. once installed, Waveform has popups that explain how it works.
Cubase LE is the best free DAW for MIDI, in my opinion. If you like orchestration, electronic music and MIDI in general, Cubase LE is a great start. The Steinberg downloader also has Dorico SE, free music notation software that also works with MIDI files.
Waveform is the more complicated of free DAWs but very versatile and effective
Has free instruments in its downloader, too, useful for electronic music.
Mac:
GarageBand
Already fully equipped as a musical studio but only for Mac, GarageBand is popular for a reason, it works well for beginners and pros alike.
#2
Get Free Software, VSTs and Plugins
Now get your free tools for making music!
VSTs refer to digital instruments played in your DAW.
Plugins usually refers to tools or sounds with vast customisation options.
Kontakt Player
Probably the biggest, bestest free composing setup out there, with a huge selection of sounds and VSTs, making most other free stuff obsolete, unless you deem otherwise. Also includes excellent free tools.
Note that many freebies online are only compatible with the full version of Kontact (e.g. 8Dio and Eva Instruments have great freebies but they only work with the FULL version of Kontact).
If you plan on purchasing the full version of Komtact, WAIT UNTIL IT’S AT LEAST 40% off! If you get Heaviocity’s free stuff you also get a discount for Kontact Full.
Big savings occur every few months which is the time for you to practise with what you already have. NEVER buy anything full price as a beginner!
ALWAYS focus on what you already have and get good at it first!
If you want to make a purchase, I recommend bundles from 8Dio when they are at least 70% off; in my personal experience, 8Dio’s deals are the most bang for your buck.
Sam's Free Orchestra
Lots of big sounds, from soaring brass to vampiric organs, good for cinematic and fantasy music.
SINE Player
A high quality free orchestra, perfect for composers who want a natural or classical sound. Includes Berlin Free Orchestra and some other VSTs.
Works very well with Dorico SE, a free musical notation software.
MNDALA2
One of the few free samplers not rendered obsolete by Kontakt Player, offering unique instruments and highly adjustable sounds.
Arturia
Beautiful soundscapes, mostly for ambient and suspenseful music.
Steinberg freebies
Useful for electronic music and LoFi.
DecentSampler
Comes with many free VSTs and unique synths.
Also useful for 3rd party instruments you can get at:
PianoBook
When downloading 3rd party software for DecentSampler, I recommend putting them all inside their own folder so you can easily delete what you don’t need anymore.
Heavyocity
Gives you a discount if upgrading to full version of Kontact
Scroll down until you see VSTs that cost zero:
FluffyAudio
The Alpine Project
More useful freebies:
Chiqui Audio
BabyAudio
Fracture Sounds
Westwood Instruments
Rast Sound
Strezov Sampling
Embertone
Ivy Audio
More free useful plugins
Note: If you are subscribed to many audio companies, sometimes you get an email advertising a limited time free product. To avoid cluttering up your personal email, create a new email dedicated for this purpose.
#3
Hardware may be Optional
Contrary to advertisements, you do NOT need an audio mixer, DI box, or audio interface to make great music. Modern technology is so good it’s better than the expensive stuff from last couple decades, that’s how much things have improved!
You only need an audio mixer or audio interface if you wish to plugin electric instruments and record what you play.
If you prefer to compose, mix and master by yourself, and not play any instruments, you don’t need any extra hardware. Your PC or Mac or phone is good enough.
Don’t let anyone boss you into making purchases you don’t need.
Buying expensive stuff does NOT make you a better artist nor does it increase your chance of making sales.
Knowing free stuff well is more useful than buying expensive products!
The only time you need hardware or analog devices is if you have a lower end, old PC that can’t handle extra latency, or if you’re already jumping into recording professional vocals, orchestras and choirs (which is very unlikely if you’re a beginner).
Audio Cables
Contrary to advertisers, expensive audio cables are optional. Modern free plugins will already clear up the signal and intensify the quality of your mixes regardless of cable prices.
Some people will get used RCA cables from a thrift store, cut the ends off, and solder ¼ cable plugs on them as a cheaper alternative. Sometimes, thrift stores even giveaway old cables for free!
The only time you may consider expensive audio cables is for live performances.
If you only want to compose, mix and master on your own, you won’t need many cables. If you buy new audio hardware, their boxes usually come with necessary cables, too.
Microphones and Instruments
Free plugins that cleanup audio will also work on recordings done by cheaper mics. Free plugins also clear up quality when using cheap cables.
Although you won’t sound epic with a cheap guitar (electric or acoustic), you can still improve its quality so long as its strings are fresh and tuned.
Check out thrift stores and online resellers that may have cheaper audio gear.
Sometimes, people advertise cheap instruments on kijiji and other social sites.
Instead of buying bulky amps, consider their free digital versions,
Free virtual amps
If you only want to compose, mix and master on your own, you won’t need any amps or physical instruments.
Studio Monitors
These are speakers that play everything at a flat frequency, allowing you to hear subtleties in your tracks, easing mixing and adjustments.
The bestest cheapest studio monitors in my opinion are M-Audio BX3 at around a hundred bucks; a beginner doesn’t really need any more than these.
Check out thrift stores and online resellers that may have cheaper audio gear.
If you can’t afford studio monitors, no worries, just do the best you can by listening very carefully with what you have.
Audio Interface
If you want an audio interface, I recommend a brand new Steinberg UR22C but DON’T order from Amazon it’s overpriced like crazy there!
If you get a used version you will probably not have the activation code and subsequently won’t get the free software, so only buy this brand new or unopened
If you only want to compose, mix and master on your own, you don’t need this.
Audio Mixer / Stereo Mixer
Gives you extra inputs / outputs once your audio interface is full. Plugs into your audio interface, studio monitors and PC / Mac.
Useful if you wish to conveniently plug in a guitar, bass, keyboard, digital drums, microphones and any other electronic instrument simultaneously; an analog Yamaha MG06 is probably all you need.
Check out thrift stores and online resellers that may have cheaper audio gear.
If you’re just mixing, composing and mastering by yourself, you don’t need this.
DI Box
A device that clears up and strengthens the signal of your electric instrument. Useful for when your audio cables must travel a hundred feet or more.
Optional for a beginner unless you hear a buzzing sound from your speakers and require a DI box to clear it up.
They come in passive and active versions but, contrary to sellers, active DI boxes are not any better than passive DI boxes. The power of modern, free plugins make active DI boxes optional.
A passive DI box does not require extra electricity, relying on the audio signal enough, whereas an active DI box is plugged into an outlet.
The Behringer DI400P is a high quality, passive DI box. If you must get a DI box, this is all you need.
As always, check out thrift stores that may have cheap audio gear.
If you only want to compose, mix and master on your own, you won’t need this.
#4
Getting Started
There are many MIDIs from Nintendo 64 games, giving you extensive practise opportunities,
Nintendo 64 MIDIs
GameCube MIDIs
Although Nintendo hates my generation, it’s usually OK to reuse their MIDIs for non-commercial projects while you acknowledge you are not the original creator (not that you’d ever get away with it anyways).
You can also get MIDIs from almost any other old game out there, a quick Google search will get you multiple websites providing them. You can also find themes from cartoons and some old movies in MIDI.
If gaming is not your thing, you can get MIDIs from Cymatics,
Cymatics MIDIs
I recommend keeping all Cymatics MIDIs in their own folder but deleting everything else, as samples take up tonnes of space.
Cymatics MIDIs are mostly for electronic music but I have used them for orchestral arrangements as well.
Although some composers don’t respect Cymatics MIDIs much, you gotta start somewhere!
Digital Sheet Music
You can compose your own digital sheet music with the free Dorico SE for PC / Mac / Linux,
Dorico, free music notation software
Dorico also has instructions, plus more tutorials on YouTube.
You can also convert your sheet music into MIDI, or drag MIDI into Dorico, adjust digital notation and MIDI data, or mix them together, alter them however you wish, and export sheet music into MIDI.
For example, a MIDI of Saria’s Song could be dragged into Dorico so you can see the notes and then adjust them however you like.
#5
Important Precautions
When exporting a mix from your DAW, always do so in WAV or FLACC to maximise quality.
Only convert to MP3 once everything else is finished (preferably to 192 kbps or higher).
If your DAW allows only limited numbers of plugins, you may have to save and export the song to WAV or FLACC during multiple stages of mixing. If so, be sure to include dates and brief notes.
NEVER delete project files! Wait until you finish the entire album. If it’s a single, wait at least a few weeks after you’re done, just in case you discover a mistake you never noticed.
If you notice you exported as MP3 and already began mixing, either restart from the original file or limit how much plugins you use to salvage clarity.
Try to avoid using too many samples, this can get you copyrighted.
If you plan on uploading music to DistroKid you should avoid samples completely; they will ask you if you did, and if so, limit your opportunities.
If using samples, use many plugins to adjust their sounds significantly.
You can usually comfortably use most samples for animations and videos.
Be wary of websites stealing other companies’ products and selling them for cheap! Before making a purchase, ALWAYS look up the company name and read reviews to ensure you don’t buy pirated material!
Some smaller companies bootleg others’ material which is only made easier by generative AI so you must be extra careful to not buy such content.
Generally, if you see an offer that’s 98% off or something absurdly discounted, it’s usually a scam.
Avoid using generative AI, audio companies are merciless! They are capable of ‘badging’ their copyrighted material in a way the human ear cannot perceive, and AI can’t fully hide it either. There are endless horror stories of artists’ careers totally ruined from even tiny infractions.
Physical Safety
If you are mixing music, you are quite distracted, and may not notice danger on time. Be sure to keep your vehicle and home locked, and your phone nearby you. Sneaky people may overhear you are musically busy and take advantage. If you have family, their priorities come first.
If you have any candles, extinguish them. However, some artists like candles for scent or relaxation. If you are one such person, do you have a fire extinguisher in your room? If not, you better get one!
The most important thing in your artistic journey is a fire extinguisher; you should also have one in your vehicle.
If you can’t afford one, keep a damp towel with you in case you must smother an unexpected fire (splashing water upon electrical equipment may not work). Then, shut down your electronics. If nothing works and the fire keeps spreading, abandon your project and call the fire department; if you have a vehicle, take the keys while evacuating. If your car is parked in a garage or near your burning house, you may have to back out to save it. If you happen to have
a garden hose outside, you might slow the fire down a bit until help arrives.
Now all that’s out of the way, we can refocus on music…
Industry-Standard Mastering
Unfortunately, to truly master your own music at an industry standard, you require powerful tools that are not available for free. To send your tracks to a professional audio engineer costs anywhere from a few hundred dollars per track, to a few to several thousand dollars per album.
Although chances are you won’t be able to afford any of that (I sure can’t), below are some of the most powerful plugins the best pros use:
Mastering plugins such as bx_masterdesk, iZotope Ozone, Howie Weinberg Mastering Console, or Lurssen Mastering Console.
Advanced audio editing like Melodyne Studio, RipX Pro or SpectraLayers. If you purchase Melodyne or SpectraLayers first, you can use the receipt to send to the guys at RipX for a discount.
Mastering compression such as Shadow Hills Mastering Compressor, TDR Kotelnikov, or PSPMastercomp, but any powerful compressor also works.
Mastering reverb such as Altiverb, Seventh Heaven, Cinematic Rooms, or Hofa IQ Series, but any powerful reverb also works.
Since this guide is about not spending excess money, we will mix and master for free by following steps 6 to 20…
#6
Sliders / Adjusters
Each instrument / track is associated with a slider in the control panel, usually found near the bottom of your DAW window. Sliding up pushes the associated sound or instrument closer to the speaker, sliding down pushes them farther back. If a track sounds too big, lower the slider. If a track is drowned out, push the slider up. Sliders are the easiest way to adjust your music.
You can also duplicate instruments in key moments while increasing the duplicate’s slider to add greater density for those special moments.
If you’re having difficulty with the sliders, set ALL of them to around -15 or less, then raise them one by one to desired volume. If you raise them all too high, they will conflict with each other and distort the song. As always, experiment with your ears, not your eyes.
Smile! The act of smiling allows you to listen to faint sounds better. If you keep your jaw clenched, you’re angry or impatient, or frowning, the muscles in your jaw and face will stifle your eardrums and Eustachian tubes.
This is why so many mixers notice mistakes AFTER they finish and export a song, because they got impatient and were incapable of hearing minute details!
So take a ten minute break every hour or so to avoid mistakes. By practising smiling and patience, you will actually save yourself time in the long-run.
Also, try to avoid large meals and even snacking at your computer; digestion interferes with your hearing.
Note that you may have to adjust sliders many times throughout the entirety of the song’s mixing and mastering, so be sure to frequently slide them a bit every few minutes.
If you pass your peak, your audio may start clipping or crackling. If this happens, lower the slider; if it’s MIDI, decrease the note velocity.
Sometimes, you will notice instruments becoming too loud or too quiet AFTER you export the finished song. If that happens, drag the exported song into your DAW and use it as a reference while reworking the sliders, MIDI notes or audio. It is possible that certain instruments / tracks end up different than how the DAW has it, so be ready to make multiple exports and adjustments.
#7
Mono, Stereo = Panorama, Soundfield
When Nintendo 64 came out, you had the option of setting the game’s audio to mono or stereo, and the game often had an image of one and two speakers. My generation as kids saw the in-game pictures and we chirped, ‘two speakers is better than one!’ which created a myth that stereo is superior to mono. Apologies!
Mono does not mean inferior quality, it’s just the sound coming from a single source.
To convert mono to stereo, duplicate a mono track, then pan one 100% to the left and the other 100% to the right. You’ve now created a stereo track. You can export this once-mono track to WAV or FLACC and reuse in stereo from now on.
Listening to mono helps you hear balance (e.g. to pan the hi-hat or kick in an unused space), meaning how loud or soft an instrument or note plays. If an instrument is too strong, it can drown out others, and if too quiet, may not even be audible.
You may instead ‘colour’ the song with an instrument that plays along softly, blending with other instruments to create an accentuated sound.
Mono is useful for bass and bassy sounds. Stereo is useful for drum overheads and toms, also guitar and vocals.
Mixing mono + stereo is useful for multiple lead vocal tracks.
Of course, you are free to use only stereo if you wish.
Big Mono refers to a situation when all your tracks are in mono, all panned 100% left and to the right. This limits the soundfield and panorama, as it’ll seem all the sound just blasts out a pair of giant speakers placed by your face. It can be useful for dramatic or surprising moments, but use Big Mono sparingly.
Panning
Since panning is related to using mono and stereo, I’ve merged these topics to ease learning. Mono is superior to stereo when you need accurate panning. Generally, it’s better to adjust each instrument with variables of your choice. e.g., put a flute 15% to the left, a piano 38% to the right, a violin 23% to the left, the drums 50% to the right, shakers 77% to the left, a whistle 85% to the right, or what have you.
This allows you to create a unique auditory adventure every time. Basically, each instrument is set into its own space, but you are free to combine a few instruments or duplicate them for both sides for that extra vigour here and there. Just don’t overdo it!
You can also cut up a song into parts, adjusting the sliders and panning differently in every part to maximise cinematic elements of the soundfield. Oppositely, you can instead pan many instruments closer to the centre to give off a powerful, direct impact to the listener.
Once panning is set to how you like it, convert back to stereo if it sounds better. If stereo plays only on one side, (e.g. due to MIDI automation or mismatched cables), duplicate it, switch duplicate to mono, and pan it to the opposite side.
If the instrument phases out seemingly for no reason, the pins 2 and 3 may be reversed in your XLR connectors, or your outputs are dusty or not properly connected, or there’s some static electricity trapped inside; wiggle your knobs rapidly until they reroute.
Once you are done with instruments, do you have vocals? If you have vocals of any kind, even quotes from a movie or game, they should be in the very center, at 0, being the focal point of the music so they are understood. Backing vocals or secondary vocals can be panned.
This is the same in movies, where dialogue of main characters is kept in the centre of the soundfield so the audience can clearly hear important info. Minor characters’ voices are sometimes panned especially when speaking irrelevant content (e.g. jokes, comments, complaints, etc.).
Phantom Imaging
If you are rich enough to afford a full, pro version of any expensive DAW, they often allow you to ‘phase invert’ which refers to reversing polarity of a stereo instrument. Whether done in your DAW, or by multiple microphones with real life instruments, this causes ‘phantom imaging’ meaning the sound seemingly comes from beyond the speakers, as if you’re panning well beyond the slider, allowing you to induce even greater, vaster atmospheric panorama to maximise sonic qualities.
Dolby Surround Sound does this to a greater extent, allowing you to pan even behind yourself. Since it requires expensive software to perform, it isn't ideal for most beginners.
If you can’t afford a pro DAW but you still wanna try going beyond panning, you can get a free phase plugin below, and is your secret weapon to further exploration of your soundfield:
Free phase plugin
Now you don’t need to spend a couple thousand dollars on stuff you don’t even need ^.^
Remember! There is no single tool or plugin that works perfectly in everything at all times, not even the most expensive plugins can do that.
Don’t be fooled by advertisers claiming they have a super do-it-all product or advanced AI software that does everything. There is no ‘singularity’ where one thing does everything, simply because mono and stereo, panning and panorama, tastes and experiences, goals and nostalgia, are unique per person.
Since you can freely get foundational tools and do a pretty good job, don’t be fooled into buying stuff you don’t even need!
As a beginner, you may be tempted to load up random plugins, then fiddling around their settings on a whim. This is not recommended for songs, as you’ll probably just make a mess.
However, experimenting with a single instrument, vocals, growls, shouts, snarls, screams, or samples, excerpts, or what have you, may give you interesting and unique results. If you find something remarkable, be sure to save it or make notes in Google Docs or something.
Also, if you see vast, empty spaces in your MIDIs, overdubs or tracks, delete those empty spaces. They slightly use memory, serving no purpose. Anything random or blank serves no purpose so get rid of them.
Check all MIDI notes in case of accidental extras or mistakes.
Slightly adjusting velocity of consecutive MIDI notes reduces repetitive sameness. If you have one, use a Wacom to easily adjust many MIDI notes by gently wiggling across them.
Wacom also useful for manual adjustments in SpectraLayers 11, writing digital sheet music in Dorico, and MIDI notation.
Export your Audio into WAV or FLACC
Saving refers to progress in the DAW’s, exporting refers to turning your audio into a file. Export in WAV or FLACC to maximise quality during mastering. If you export as MP3, this reduces mixing potential.
If you realise you accidentally exported to MP3 while mixing, either restart from the beginning or reduce drastic settings in your plugins to salvage as much clarity as you can.
#8
Clippers / Soft Clippers
Strengthens signal without adding gain; often used on drums but also useful across the whole mix. Although underused, the free clippers are more potent than even paid peak limiters, cleaning up your audio easily right off the bat. Therefore, it’s useful at the start!
#9
De-essing
Free de-essers
Essing (aka sibilance) occurs when wind or vocalists go ‘sss’ or ‘flrlrlrlr’ in the microphone. You can eliminate this by using a pop filter (that fuzzy thing that wraps around the microphone) or pop shield (a stationary extension connected to the mic stand).
A condenser microphone also helps reduce this issue but a pop filter is all a beginner needs.
If you don’t have such a microphone or pop filter, then EQ and heavy compression helps reduce essing; with the EQ, lower the left part all the way down to remove most sibilance.
A free de-esser will usually work very well; simply run it and play around with the settings until you get the result you need.
Analog de-essers often only have threshold and frequency; they are obsolete even against free digital de-essers so don’t bother buying analog de-essers.
If you setup a compressor into the sidechain of an EQ plugin, you will create a de-esser.
If you don’t manage sibilance, your vocals will have ear-piercing and skull-shattering force, which isn’t good in music but useful for banshee-like creature noises or horror music jumpscares.
Some cymbals and other percussive instruments may induce an overly sharp ‘sss’ noise; a de-esser may reduce the harshness.
#10
Limiting
Free limiters
Limiters are similar to compressors, but limiters have a ratio of 10:1 or greater, often with rapid attack timing. Compression is like water, whereas limiting is the dam; no matter how much water there is, only a certain amount will flow through. The limiter simply blocks anything to its set limit. Limiting also helps protect speakers (and your ears).
Like with all plugins, unique experimenting per each and every instrument per song is a must.
When limiting bass guitar or anything else bassy, limit from 1dB to 5dB, with a ratio of 10:1 to the maximum of 20:1 (depending on the song, instrument, personal tastes, etc.).
#11
Compression
Free compressors
Dynamic range compression reduces audio source signals to prevent their loudest parts going too high. As with all plugins, you set it to each instrument. They often are set to a ratio of 4:1 to 8:1 but you are free to adjust anywhere you wish. If set 1:1, nothing happens.
Compression is an extremely important aspect of audio and it’s critical you do this correctly! So many times in my own music I setup compression, but never took the time adjusting them properly out of eagerness to finish the track.
Rushing makes mistakes, patience makes perfection. You're better off working slowly and correctly.
I won’t bother explaining gain ratio, threshold, compression ratio, or signal envelope. Who cares about technicalities? All you need to know about a compressor’s attack and release, is it’s how fast or slow it reacts to the signal. You want its attack to go through and the release to prolong the sound.
Vocals usually sound better with slower compression but adjust the setting until you find the balance; too slow can distort the signal.
Compression beyond 6dB is good for controlling dynamics rather than the soundfield.
Compression 1 to 2 dB is useful for adjusting sonic blends.
Compression 3 to 5 dB is useful for woodwinds, depending on which ones you’re using.
Electric guitars, vocals, microphones and drums can be given up to 20dB, based on taste and genre.
Compressors with Numbers
If your compressor uses numbers instead of knobs:
Type————Ratio————Attack———Release
Kick————2:1—————1/64th————1/16th
Snare————2:1————1/64th————1/16th
Subgroup——2:1—————1/64th———1/16th
Guitar———varies—————varies———varies
Bass————12:1————1/32nd———1/16th
Mix bus———2:1————1/16th————1/16th
Vocals———4:1—————1/6th————1/4th
Woodwinds——4:1————varies————varies
Brass———6:1 to 15:1———varies————varies
Strings———1.1:1 to 2:1——varies————varies
Tom Toms——5:1—————varies————varies
Choir————4:1—————varies————varies
Epic Choir——8:1—————varies————varies
Keyboard——varies————varies————varies
Others———varies————varies————varies
Higher ratio + shorter attack + longer release = more aggression.
If you still don’t get the sound you like, adjust ratios until suited to your tastes.
Types of Compressors
Digital Compressor
Most compressors used nowadays are digital. Even the free ones are vastly more powerful than their analog forefathers, but are often limited in function. This is why it’s best to have at least three free compressor plugins just in case one doesn’t work well for whatever instrument or song you’re working on.
One advantage analog compressors have is they do not increase latency in PCs, though modern PCs usually won’t have latency issues anyways. They also look cool to have lying around your bedroom XD.
Optical
A tiny lightbulb and photocell in the compression circuit that slows attack and release; useful for soft, warm, atmospheric, or emotional music and LoFi.
Useful for key moments in a song where warmth is needed; usually not good for kicks or snares.
Available in digital plugins, too.
FET (Field Effect Transistor)
Fast, aggressive compression useful for music that is dramatic, dynamic or adventurous.
VCA (Voltage Controlled Amplifier)
Fast, aggressive compression useful for drums, percussion and bassy sounds; can lack weight so often requires additional heaviness elsewhere (e.g. more reverb or left side of EQ raised).
Vari-Gain
A compression that reacts slowly and heavily, but lacks dynamics; good for bass and bassy instruments.
Multiband Compression
Free multi compressors
Splits signal into two to six frequencies, each with a different compression, allowing easy balancing and clarity, but becoming obsolete from dynamic EQs.
An alternate to multiband compression is a dynamic EQ plugin, such as the free ZL EQ
Whether you stick with the easier multiband compression, or the more complex dynamic EQ for greater possibilities, is up to you!
Parallel Compression
Free parallel compressors
Contrary to its name, this isn’t complicated. A parallel compressor sends its signal to another channel via auxiliary, bus or mult, or some other patchpoint, then adds compression only to the second channel. This uses both the natural sound and the compression, offering a balance of punch and control.
Useful for kicks and snares.
Useful for any instrument where the mixer feels a balance of punch and control is needed, or is their preference.
Hypercompression
When too much compression or limiting is used, the audio becomes flatlined, soulless and boring; since this can’t be undone later, use compression sparingly!
Bus Compressor
A stereo compressor across the bus mix, to address complaints of why songs sounded different after the studio back in the day. Only use after you finish all other audio issues. Easy to overdo so be sure to use sparingly; often you won’t need with any more than one or two dB.
Bus compression is unique in that you can add it after finishing the mix to reduce its impact.
Ratios
If you want more punch and aggression, set ratio low.
If you want control and emotions, set ratio high.
Drum Ratios
Drum kick & snare: ~1.5:1 to ~2:1
Other drum parts: ~4:1 to ~8:1
Low ratio for punch (rock music, heavy metal, action), high ratio for control (jazz, orchestral drums, emotions).
Like everything, tastes and preferences are unique per person; you are free to experiment with different ratios and combos at will.
Note: Digitally produced drumwork is much easier to mix than real drums, but lacks the true depth and power of real acoustics.
Manually Get Attack & Release
Set attack slow, set release fast, until high frequencies go dull then go back until balanced to your tastes.
Then increase release time until its sound diminishes, then increase so it flows smoothly with drumbeat.
Adjust gain until same as bypassed signal; readjust gain until smooth with the song’s pulse or rhythm or on desired outcome.
Sidechain (aka Key Input)
A separate input that connects other plugins into the compressor; e.g. an EQ set into the compressor’s sidechain becomes a de-esser, allowing you to clear up vocals and increase rhythmic elements if you so wish.
You can also ‘duck a track’ in this manner. Airport speakers duck musical tracks during announcements. This is also done during radio advertisements. Since you probably aren’t doing any of that, we won’t worry about ducking tracks, but still worth mentioning.
#12
Transient Shapers / Transient Designer / Shaper
The opposite of a noise gate and compression; has a ratio usually of 1:2, making loud parts stronger. Often used for drum overheads and snare drums, and orchestral drums. Overall a rather underused plugin that has its place to make your drums sound epic!
#13
Modulation
A list of mods that are optional; use them all, or one, some, or none, up to you!
There are many more types of mods, enough to make a book, so if there’s one not listed here, you’ll just have to experiment with it yourself. Mods like these come in free versions, easily found with search engines, but optional.
Phase Shift
Cancels frequencies by shifting their phrases to desired effects, while frequency notches are evenly spaced out.
Flanging
0.1 to 5 millisecond delay; deep frequency cancellation; frequency notches harmonically spread across the response. Can help drown out vocal mistakes.
Phaser
Weaker flanging.
Chorus
Flanger with 5 to 25 millisecond delay; thickens sound into stereo image; frequency notches harmonically spaced out the response.
Can be panned fully left and right to thicken entire song. Can help drown out vocal mistakes.
Can be panned behind dry vocals to hide vocal mistakes.
Tremolo
Cyclic volume changes; useful for electric keyboards.
Vibrato
Cyclic pitch changes; not recommended for guitar as it will sound out of tune.
Something else?
Any other mod you want? There are many, many more out there! Experiment with those you find curious. You can even add the first Equaliser here, so you use two EQs, but that is normally done by more experienced mixers. The choice is yours.
#14
Filters
Like an EQ but cuts off frequency below desired level.
Useful for removing high or low end frequencies that don’t do anything or reduce audio quality (e.g. wind or traffic).
Set to 6dB per octave for soft adjustment.
Set to 12dB per octave for moderate adjustment (is also most common).
24dB per octave is steepest setting; anything more totally cuts all frequencies below selected range and risks degrading audio quality.
High-Pass Filter / Low-Cut FIlter
Allows higher sound to pass but blocks lows.
If you cut off low frequencies at ~100 Hz or higher on all instruments except kick and bass and other bassy sounds, the entire song will clear up quite well .
Cutting off bass and drums 40 to 60 Hz sometimes helps add punch without affecting low end.
Low-Pass Filter / High-Cut Filter
Allows low sounds to pass while blocking highs.
Notch Filter
Cuts a band of frequencies while allowing the frequencies on the sides to pass. Is obsolete by modern-day free plugins and digital instruments.
Bandpass Filter
Allows a specific band of frequencies to pass while blocking the others. It’s obsolete by modern-day free multipass compressors.
#15
A noise gate (downward expander) is a bit like a limiter, but blocks low sounds until reaching a certain threshold, then the low sounds are released.
If your music has unwanted sounds like coughs, lip smack, buzzes, burping, amplifier hums, or what have you, this will remove them. Some 3rd party VSTs have deep amplifier hums so a noise gate can remove that, too.
As a beginner, you are unlikely to come across these issues, but this is nevertheless worth knowing! Can also be used on samples, excerpts from movies or games, or what have you.
Noise gates are useful for real drums and live performances to avoid unwanted sounds.
#16
Decay and Reverb
Free reverbs
Borealis free reverb
Decay is how quickly sound fades; often found in reverb plugins as its own knob or setting.
Setup decay before reverb to ease workflow, unless otherwise intended for artistic explorations.
Drums and percussion useful with short decay and non-linear reverb.
Decay should ‘breathe’ within snares, not seem to hold its breath.
If decay overlaps, adjust until it seems to be panting within the beats.
Pre-delay usually set from 20 to 40 milliseconds.
Try mixing various reverbs together to create unique echoes and patterns.
Adjust reverb and decay while song plays for real-time determination.
Longer reverb is better suited for longer notes by symphonic strings, ambient pads, organ, and other instruments that play long and strongly.
Decay Tips
Drums: Decay set to ~1.5 seconds, pre-decay ~20 milliseconds
General decay for anything not drums: ~1.7 - 2 seconds of decay with ~110 to 130 milliseconds of pre-decay; varies widely so be sure to experiment with slight adjustments; remember to listen with your ears not your eyes!
Vocals: ~220 milliseconds of decay with two repeats.
Everything else: To own preferences or goals.
If decay gives bad results, or doesn’t fit the music, reset to default setting or change plugin entirely.
Use reverb to emphasize the most important instrument or part of the song, such as a solo violin or guitar or piano or voice. The effects should gradually build towards a climax or dynamical contrast.
Any large reverb useful for strings, brass, choir, ambience, underscore, and backing instruments.
Note: it’s also a good idea to keep a dry version of the song, meaning instrumentals without effects, just in case you must restart or compare.
Types of Reverb
Plate Reverb
Simply a style of reverb when a large metal plate was used for morphing the audio into a lush, spacious, shimmering sensation.
The plate was usually a hanging 4x6 foot metal sheet, allowing a small studio to create vast reverb without having to setup microphones in a spacious area.
Set decay from one to four seconds, with pre-decay set from as tiny as just a few milliseconds to around 150 milliseconds, depending on your taste and what fits the music. Since this varies drastically, experiment generously until you find something you like!
Plate reverb useful for drums, orchestral percussion, synths, and unique instruments that must stand out from everything else.
Spring Reverb
An analog reverb that had in-built springs delaying the audio signal and creating physical reverberation.
Some were built in Fender guitar amps.
Digital spring reverb plugins also exist, vastly more powerful than their analog forefathers.
Non-linear
Digital reverb capable of creating decay that’s impossible naturally (such as reversing reverb tails).
Useful for drums since the 80s.
Convolution Reverb
Reverb using quick bursts of energy (impulses).
Reverb Diffusion / Reverb Density
When reverb uses very many tiny echoes connected to each other.
Higher diffusion useful for drums and percussion.
Low diffusion useful for strings, synths, vocals and brass instruments.
Smoothen Reverb
Too much low reverb distorts sound, whilst too much high reverb throws everything outwards.
To balance out reverb: experiment from ~200 to ~10k Hz for each instrument; lower midrange by ~1k to ~2k Hz; adjust these settings while song plays for real-time control.
Layered Reverb
Set various reverb plugins at various frequencies; one with long delay, another with short delay; moderately pan each reverb to its own side
Set reverbs into mono; you have now created a unique reverb pattern!
Basic Layering
A technique where you copy-paste an entire track up to several times, giving each a different combo of EQ and other mastering settings to maximize the soundfield of that musical element, whilst keeping said sounds in their own ambient form.
For example, one duplicated track can be quieter with extra reverb, another can have the EQ set to high, or what have you.
Helps make solo instruments and orchestras sound epic or huge.
Very useful for guitar and vocals.
#17
Delay
This plugin is similar to reverb, adding depth and rhythm to your music. You usually use this anywhere from around forty to four-hundred milliseconds, unless you wanna get a little crazy!
Simply experiment from 40 to 400 milliseconds per instrument until you find what sounds good
If it doesn’t sound good, change plugin or simply don’t use any delay.
Types of Delay
Haas Effect
A delay set from twenty to forty milliseconds so it’s not perceived as a repeat, inducing spaciousness especially when in stereo or panned opposite of the source instrument (e.g., if a guitar is panned 33 to the left, pan the Haas Effect 22 to 44 to the right. Useful for synths, underscore, backing vocals, and cinematic widening. Do not use for lead vocals, kick drums or snares.
I also learned from Dom Sigalas that Haas effect can also be added to a duplicated track that’s panned completely left or right, wet with zero feedback, while the original track is dry. Also works in mono. Do not overuse. Easily achieved by any stock or free stereo plugins in any DAW.
Short Delay
50 to 150 milliseconds, inducing a double-tracked effect (aka slap back echo).
Medium Delay
151 to 400 milliseconds, heard as a repeat.
Long Delay
401 milliseconds to one whole second or more, clearly heard as a long repeat.
Too much delay makes the song difficult to follow.
Ping-pong
Delay that bounces side to side.
Useful for animations where a character or projectiles flies to and fro.
Tape
References a delay caused by magnetic tape of analog players, creating a fluttery sensation.
Digital versions do not truly replicate this exact physical sensation, being one case where analog hardware has more use than its digital counterpart, but still optional.
Dynamic Delay
When delay begins after source sound fades away then stops once the next phrase begins.
(Since analog delay techniques are complicated and I’ve never been able to afford one, I won’t elaborate on them as I’m totally unqualified)
#18
Essentially is dense, subtle distortion; simply adjust controls until all instruments are audible.
Helps add depth without increasing much distortion. Can also be placed after EQ to produce different sounds, your choice.
More about subtle sonic properties than music.
Useful for panorama or panning to induce sensation from specific directions in your soundfield; e.g. drama or cinematic music.
#19
In a full mixing chain, equalisers are usually placed AFTER compression, limiter, de-esser, gate, expander, etc. If you place EQ at the beginning, every time you adjust EQ, you impact the settings and frequencies of everything else, which can make quite a mess.
e.g., a de-esser, placed after EQ instead of in its side-chain, will become ineffective when you adjust EQ midrange and highrange.
However, if you only use a few plugins, you can place EQ at the beginning as a shortcut, though you will probably get suboptimal results. If using more than four plugins, you should keep EQ near the end, unless desired otherwise, or done for experimentation.
For best results, you must use a unique EQ setup for each instrument you have. Don’t be lazy! If you instead export the track and do EQ last, you will often get a muddy result.
Equalizers are not as complicated as they seem. Most EQ plugins resemble a box with a line going across the middle. Click and hold in the box; moving around adjusts equalization.
The lower left side is the lower end, the upper right is the higher end, while the middle in the mid-range. Going too much into any extreme often distorts the song so isn’t recommended.
Experiment and explore to suit your tastes.
You can also click and hold then wiggle the cursor around while the song plays, allowing real-time adjustments best suited to the music.
Don’t forget to try other EQ plugins to see which one you like best! Some are numeric only, others use curves, some are even automatic. Whichever you like, use. As always, use your ears, not your eyes!
If two or more instruments conflict with each other, adjust their individual EQ settings. You may have to pan them further left or right until they find a cozy spot, or adjust their EQ or sliders more.
General EQ Tips
If you want something to stand out, cut the bottom out; if you want it to blend in, cut off the top.
The fewer instruments, the bigger they should be to fill the soundfield.
The more instruments there are, the smaller they should sound so they all fit.
Usually better increasing two small frequencies than increasing one largely.
The more a solo instrument is fine-tuned, the harder it’s heard amid other instruments.
Hertz — description
16 - 60 Hz — Subbass; sound is felt rather than heard, creating heaviness.
60 - 250 Hz — Bass; the basic notes for rhythm and boomy beats.
250 - 2k Hz — Low Mids; low notes and harmonics; boosting further can cause instruments to sound brassy or metallic, which causes audio fatigue.
2k - 4k Hz — High Mids; speech for words starting with m, b, or v; too much boost causes lisping; can use this range for background instruments; can then peak vocals by 3k Hz.
4k - 6k Hz — Presence; for clarity and closeness to speakers; beyond 5k will sound distant.
6k - 15k Hz — Brilliance; induces a sense of wide-open vastness but induces strong sibilance for vocals.
Types of EQ
Useful to have a few different EQs but not required. Only use what you want or would like to try out.
Static Equaliser
Adjusts frequencies for the entire song, usually used after all mixing is finished.
Shelving EQ
Frequencies above or below parameters are boosted or cut by same amount; usually does not affect midrange.
100Hz and 10k Hz are popular points but you can adjust to your tastes.
Tilt EQ
Exactly as name implies, tilts frequency of signal by boosting treble and cutting bass (or vice-versa); useful for musical warmth, emotions, love songs, LoFi, etc.
The tilt is often already part of an EQ plugin controls so just look for its knob.
Some paid plugins are specifically designed for tilt, such as MixlandTilt or ToneluxTilt, but overall optional.
Peaking EQ / Bell EQ
Similar to shelving EQ but has midrange control that’s boosting or cutting central frequencies
Depending on the plugin, controls can be in fixed increments, continuous variables, or proportional (meaning bandwidth narrows with more EQ).
Graphic EQ
A series of connected peaks based on industry-standard selections of Hertz.
Rarely used by beginners.
A five-band Graphic EQ is not worth getting as the selections are too limited.
If you want to use Graphic EQ, only get a ten-band one or a one-third octave graphic EQ.
Parametric EQ
A peaking equaliser with a Q or bandwidth control to the boost/cut frequency controls.
Q stands for quality (narrows the bandwidth).
Setting Q around 1 useful for boosting sonic qualities.
Setting Q around 10 useful for focusing on narrowed frequencies for specific adjustments.
Use narrow Q when cutting frequencies, wide Q for boosting them.
True Parametric EQ
A Parametric EQ where all bands strictly operate as they are set.
Some Parametric EQs only operate in the midrange.
Dynamic Equaliser
An equaliser and multiband compressor put together.
The dynamic EQ replaces the crossover filters of multiband compression with EQ filters, enabling precise focus on a band of frequencies, allowing you to adjust a specific frequency, gain, and bandwidth, while also adding more compression controls like threshold, attack and release, increasing dynamics and sonic qualities to a greater degree than most other EQs.
Other Uses for Dynamic Equalizer
Has a multiband de-esser, which are more powerful than regular de-essers, allowing you to regulate sharp ‘sss’ from multiple frequencies.
Fixes vocals sung too loudly by dipping those parts 2k to 3k.
Fixes leakage from toms; dip leaking sections 300Hz to 400Hz.
Enhances drumstick strikes by 5k Hz to make toms vast.
Fixes overpowered cymbal strikes when the drummer got carried away; dip 5k to 10k Hz during these moments.
Bass and kick may drown each other when played at the same time; assign kick to sidechain and set to 80 to 100 Hz.
When increasing finished mixes to around 10k Hz, you may make cymbals harsh; fix by dipping the EQ whenever the cymbals play.
By experimenting with Dynamic EQ, you will uncover more and more powerful uses to thrust your music to the next level!
AI EQ
An equaliser powered by artificial intelligence, programmed to identify visual issues in the frequencies.
Very useful for beginners but does not actually explain why a sonic problem exists.
Does not necessarily follow the aural goals of the mixer’s personality.
Other Features EQ Plugins May Have
EQ Match
A feature that pulls tonal qualities of overdubs or fix pass sounds together.May require multiple attempts for the program to succeed.
Masking Metre
A display of frequency response from two DAW channels at once, highling overlaps.
Tonal Balance
A display showing a song’s distributions of frequencies; mostly a reference.
Self-Adjusting Frequency Bands
A program that automatically adjusts frequencies based on input.
Split EQ
A Parametric EQ and transient designer put together (allows you to apply EQ to transients).
This makes key moments in the mix stand out even more.
Useful for fixing sound issues when all other methods failed.
Magic Frequencies
A term referring to an instrument’s optimized frequency.
Doesn’t mean you always only use these.
Modern
Bass guitar: girth: 50 to 80 Hz. Bottom: 120 to 2240 Hz. Attack: ~700 Hz. String noise: 2.5k Hz
Electric Guitar: Fullness: 240 to 500 Hz. Presence: 1.5 to 2.5k Hz. Air/sizzle: 8k Hz. If using 4x12 cabinet: accentuate 1k Hz
Drumset
Kick: Bottom: 80 - 100 Hz. Hollowness: ~400 Hz. Point/beater: 3k to 5k Hz
Snare: Fatness: 120 to 200 Hz. Point: 900Hz. Crispness: ~5k Hz. Snap: ~10k Hz
Toms: Bottom: 240 to 500 Hz. Attack: 5k to 7k Hz
Floor toms: Fullness: 80Hz. Attack ~5k Hz
Hi-hat: 100 to 200Hz. Clang: ~1k Hz. Definition: ~4k Hz. Sizzle: ~8k Hz
Cymbals: Clang: ~200 Hz. Sparkle: 8k to 10k Hz
Traditional
Acoustic guitar / Organ: Fullness: ~80 Hz. Body: ~240 Hz. Presence: 2k to 5k Hz
Piano: Fullness: ~80 Hz. Presence: 3k to 5k Hz. Honky tonk: ~2.5 Hz.
Woodwinds: Fullness: ~400 to ~440 Hz. Piercing: ~2k to ~3k Hz
Horns: Fullness: ~120 Hz. Piercing: ~5k Hz
Brass: Fullness: ~300 to ~400 Hz. Piercing: ~2k Hz
Strings: Fullness: ~240 Hz. Shrill: 3k Hz. Scratchy: 7k to 10k Hz
Conga: Ring: ~200 Hz. Slaps: 5k Hz.
Vocals: Fullness: ~120 Hz. Boomy: ~240 Hz. Presence: ~5k Hz. Sibilance: 4k to 7k Hz. Air: 10k to 15k Hz
Trouble Frequencies
Six frequencies most likely to cause you trouble; if you hear degraded audio from them, go back and have less instruments playing in said frequency.
200 Hz = Muddy.
300 to 500 Hz = Boxy, ‘beach ball toms / kicks’ (reduce kicks+toms be a few dB to fix).
800 Hz = ‘Walmart sound’ (audio akin to a cheap stereo), move away from here.
1k to 1.5k = Nasal range, makes vocals sound like they're sung through a giant nose.
4k to 6k Hz = Presence dulled; don’t be afraid to move into these very high ranges!
10k Hz+ = Air, another underused frequency range; don’t be afraid to go into extremes! Many vintage mics sounded great because they were adjusted to this Hertz level!
Balancing Bass and Drums
If you notice conflict with bass or drums, or one drowns out the other, there are some possible fixes:
Ensure both have plenty of room.
EQ kick 60 to 120 Hz; or add 1k to 4k Hz; or centre to around 80 Hz.
Reverse Hz of kick and bass.
Set bass 80 to 250 Hz (or vice-versa with kick); or increase filtering; or set kick below 30 Hz and bass to 50 Hz.
Boost compression of snares: +1k Hz attack, +120 to 240 Hz for fullness, +10k Hz for snap, then reduce 1k Hz for cymbals and everything else in drumset; if toms are too strong lower their Hz below 60 Hz.
If your bass and kicks still seem light, boost their level, not their EQ.
To find the snare point, set snare at 2k Hz and boost upper midrange by ~6 dB; open up Q (if your plugin has it) and increase until the snare pulses out, then gradually tighten bandwidth until you hear the snare balances out; fine-tune this signal until it has the minimally needed boost to retain crispness.
#20
Audio Normalising / Leveler & Static Equaliser
After EQing, check volume across the entire mix to ensure nothing sounds too loud or too quiet.
Usually a stock plugin; also often available on video editing software.
Go back to sliders if necessary.
Check the green bars in the control panel; if they turn red during playing, lower their slider
Possible to duplicate track, delete loud part in original track, then delete parts in duplicate not causing problems, then making adjustments with what’s left.
If certain parts too quiet, boost with EQ by raising the points, or duplicate parts that are too quiet (delete loud parts in duplicates).
If necessary, use a static equaliser. If this does nothing to your mix, don’t use it.
If using MIDI, lower velocity of notes at overly loud parts; increase velocity if too quiet.
Double check MIDI tracks to ensure no accidental or extra MIDI notes are present.
Sometimes, MIDI notes are doubled while placed at the same spot, making them hard to spot without moving them around.
Volume varies depending upon platform (streaming, podcast, music, etc.), so be sure to match your audio to the specs of the platform you’re uploading to.
You may also use a second equaliser for further audio adjustment. Alternatively, you may place an EQ at Modulation instead.
Once your levelling and final equalising are done, convert your mix from WAV / FLACC to MP3 (preferably at 192 kbps or higher).
Mission Accomplished!
But you have only begun your journey into mastering music! Now it’s a matter of repeating steps 6 to 20 with variations and experimentations for other songs, each one a unique adventure.
You are likely to notice mistakes here and there, and that’s OK. Noticing mistakes means you’re learning so go ahead and make mistakes.
Good luck!